Not to mention the ethical issues that arise from harvesting ivory, but somehow methinks that wasn't a huge concern way back when. Enter inventor John Wesley Hyatt who—in spite of professional chemists' warnings of causing an explosion—blended camphor with nitrocellulose and produced a hard, moldable substance he dubbed "celluloid.
And oh, what a glorious family of plastics succeeded celluloid! It includes the likes of polypropeline, polyetheline, polystyrene, polyester, nylon, bakelite, lucite and the plastic commonly known as vinyl.
You may not know it by the oddball names, but you're probably most familiar with polypropeline and polystyrene polyethylene by way of Tupperware products. Though innovative, celluloid had its problems—namely its highly flammable nature. Explosive fiber might seem an unlikely base for a moldable material, but the development of cellulose nitrate, also called nitrocellulose, was the first step toward celluloid.
Cellulose, composed of a chain of sugar molecules, is the building block of the cell walls of green plants. The white, fluffy fibers still looked the same, but they burned swiftly and fiercely. Collodion, first used in the late s as a liquid bandage to protect skin, soon became important for photography.
Turning this substance into a solid mass, however, required more experiments and ingredients. Camphor, another plant-based material, provided the key. Camphor, familiar as a medicine and a moth repellent, is a crystalline compound usually derived from the wood and bark of the camphor laurel, a tree native to Asia.
When combined with pyroxylin partly nitrated cellulose and other ingredients, camphor both dissolves the guncotton and makes it literally plastic, or moldable. Two new pyroxylin-based plastics—parkesine and xylonite—made short-lived appearances in the s before falling into obscurity. Other similar materials followed, also with little success. But man-made plastic soon found a future.
The hard, uniform ivory of the highest quality essential to make balls came from the African ivory trade, which slaughtered elephants and forced enslaved men to carry the tusks on foot for hundreds of miles. Despite the barbarity of the trade, American firms worried more about potential shortages and the high manufacturing costs of turning raw ivory into billiard balls. Hyatt jumped into the fray, experimenting with shellac the resin from the female lac bug, which lives in forests in Thailand and India and pressed wood pulp.
This mixture, already used to make molded cases for daguerreotype photographs, was at first more suitable for smaller items like dominoes and checkers. Hyatt, ever resourceful, set up a company to make such game pieces, before beginning experiments with pyroxylin and camphor. He found it was not enough just to mix the two materials. In a process he patented in , the two were pulverized separately—with dyes or pigments added to the pyroxylin pulp—then combined into a single mass, which was drained under pressure to remove excess water and molded under high heat.
After further processing, including curing to remove excess camphor, the final substance was light, strong, relatively stable, and versatile although it unfortunately retained the flammability of its guncotton component. Celluloid, the first successful synthetic plastic, had arrived. Hyatt, along with his brother Isaiah Smith Hyatt, immediately put his invention to use. First they set up a company to make celluloid dental plates for false teeth, as an alternative to rubber.
Here the brothers devised machinery for mixing the ingredients and new ways of manipulating the material. Blow molding, a process for making hollow items from celluloid tubes, was an important Hyatt development, leading to the mass production of millions of inexpensive toys and ornaments. Since it was clear and colorless if left undyed, celluloid could take on any tone, even mixed or mottled shades. Clever artisans fashioned celluloid into artificial ivory or coral, semiprecious stones, and tortoiseshell, which was especially in demand for hair combs and eyeglass frames.
Celluloid, though, was more dangerous to its makers than its consumers, with factory fires a common hazard. But what of the billiard balls that led John Wesley Hyatt on his journey? They were probably never made wholly of celluloid. Instead, they were most likely composed of lighter, cheaper shellac and wood pulp, like his game pieces, with only a thin coating of collodion or celluloid to impart strength and color.
Until the introduction of Bakelite in the early 20th century, there would be no wholly acceptable substitute for ivory in billiards. Some advertisements for celluloid collars and cuffs reflected the widespread anti-Chinese prejudice of the late 19th century by suggesting that celluloid linens, which required no laundering, could drive immigrants out of business.
In the late 19th century, as industrialization accelerated and cities expanded, more Americans began working in offices and stores. This growing class of male and female workers—clerks, secretaries, typists, salespeople—was required to dress neatly and formally, often on modest salaries and while living in dirty, coal-fueled cities.
Detachable collars and cuffs made of linen or cotton allowed shirts and blouses to be reworn while still looking fresh, but the detachable items needed to be washed, starched, and ironed regularly, just like the garments themselves. Paper collars and cuffs, though cheap, were not strong enough or dirt-resistant enough to be ideal substitutes, even when varnished. Sheet celluloid, introduced in the mids, provided a solution, and again Hyatt led the way. He sandwiched linen or paper between thin sheets of transparent celluloid, then invented machines for cutting, heating, and bending this hybrid material into the form of collars, cuffs, and shirtfronts.
The resulting long-lasting items never needed washing: they could just be rinsed clean. Hyatt himself applied for and received 11 patents for improvements to his invention, including methods of finishing the items for a more natural appearance.
I probably shouldn't admit this, but once I was there and looking at all of the wonderful objects, I stopped thinking about whether I had enough storage space -- I just figured I'd find the space afterward, and luckily, I did. See more posts from and about the Smithsonian. Images: 1; Celluloid game piece; 2. Celluloid brooches and pins; 3.
The author in the Perlovs' apartment, about to unwrap celluloid artifacts for examination; 4. Skip to content Site Navigation The Atlantic. Popular Latest. The Atlantic Crossword.
Sign In Subscribe. This prompted Dadie to look for an inexpensive collectible that could be handled by and would be of interest to her children. During the s, she settled on celluloid, a new material developed by American inventor John Wesley Hyatt in It turns out that Dadie made an excellent choice of material.
Daughters Nancy, Jane, and Amy enthusiastically joined their parents on collecting trips, visiting flea markets, antique stores, and rummage sales in the United States and abroad.
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